Monica Cheesbrough:
District Laboratory Practice in Tropical Countries: Part 1 (Second Edition) - Taschenbuch
2009, ISBN: 9780521135177
Oak Ridge National Laboratory Review - Summer 1974 - Volume 7 Number 2Content/Features Vol. 7, No. 2 ( 1974):The High Flux Isotope Reactor at ORNLThe ORNL Transuranium Element ProgramChec… Mehr…
Oak Ridge National Laboratory Review - Summer 1974 - Volume 7 Number 2Content/Features Vol. 7, No. 2 ( 1974):The High Flux Isotope Reactor at ORNLThe ORNL Transuranium Element ProgramChecking Out the High-Conducting Organic SaltsWords for Alvin WeinbergIsotopes in SpacePaperback8.4 x 11 inches, 24 pagesOak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) is an American multiprogram science and technology national laboratory sponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and administered, managed, and operated by UT-Battelle as a federally funded research and development center (FFRDC) under a contract with the DOE. ORNL is the largest science and energy national laboratory in the Department of Energy system by surface and by annual budget. ORNL is located in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, near Knoxville. ORNL's scientific programs focus on materials, neutron science, energy, high-performance computing, systems biology and national security.ORNL partners with the state of Tennessee, universities and industries to solve challenges in energy, advanced materials, manufacturing, security and physics.The laboratory is home to several of the world's top supercomputers including the world's fifth most powerful supercomputer ranked by the TOP500, Titan, and is a leading neutron science and nuclear energy research facility that includes the Spallation Neutron Source and High Flux Isotope Reactor. ORNL hosts the Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, the BioEnergy Science Center, and the Consortium for Advanced Simulation of Light-Water Reactors.The town of Oak Ridge was established by the Army Corps of Engineers as part of the Clinton Engineer Works in 1942 on isolated farm land as part of the Manhattan Project. During the war, advanced research for the government was managed at the site by the University of Chicago. In 1943, construction of the "Clinton Laboratories" was completed, later renamed to "Oak Ridge National Laboratory". The site was chosen for the X-10 Graphite Reactor, used to show that plutonium can be created from enriched uranium. Enrico Fermi and his colleagues developed the world's second self-sustaining nuclear reactor after Fermi's previous experiment, the Chicago Pile-1. The X-10 was the first reactor designed for continuous operation. After the end of World War II the demand for weapons-grade plutonium fell and the reactor and the laboratory's 1000 employees were no longer involved in nuclear weapons, instead it was used for scientific research. In 1946 the first medical isotopes were produced in the X-10 reactor, by 1950 almost 20,000 samples had been shipped to various hospitals. As the demand for military science had fallen dramatically the future of the lab was uncertain. Management of the lab was contracted by the US government to Monsanto, however, they withdrew in 1947. The University of Chicago re-assumed responsibility, until in December 1947 Union Carbide and Carbon Co., which already operated two other facilities at Oak Ridge, took control of the laboratory and Alvin Weinberg was named Director of Research ORNL, and in 1955 Director of the Laboratory.In 1950 the Oak Ridge School of Reactor Technology was established with two courses in reactor operation and safety; almost 1000 students graduated. Much of the research performed at ORNL in the 1950s was relating to nuclear reactors as a form of energy production both for propulsion and electricity; more reactors were built in the 1950s than the rest of the ORNL's history combined.Another project was the world's first light water reactor. With its principles of neutron moderation and fuel cooling by ordinary water it is the direct ancestor of most modern nuclear power stations. The US Military funded much of its development, for nuclear-powered submarines and ships of the US Navy.The US Army contracted portable nuclear reactors in 1953 for heat and electricity generation in remote military bases. The reactors were designed at ORNL, produced by American Locomotive Company and used in Greenland, the Panama Canal Zone and Antarctica. The United States Air Force (USAF) also contributed funding to three reactors; the lab's first computers; and its first particle accelerators. ORNL designed and tested a nuclear-powered aircraft in 1954 as a proof-of-concept for a proposed USAF fleet of long-range bombers, although it never flew.The provision of radionuclides by X-10 for medicine grew steadily in the 1950s with more isotopes available; ORNL was the only Western source of californium-252. ORNL scientists lowered the immune systems of mice and performed the world's first successful bone marrow transplant.In the early 1960s there was a large push at ORNL to develop nuclear-powered desalination plants where deserts met the sea to provide water. The project called Water for Peace was backed by John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson and presented at a 1964 United Nations conference but increases in the cost of construction and public confidence in nuclear power falling caused the plan to fail. The Health Physics Research Reactor built in 1962 was used for radiation exposure experiments leading to more accurate dosage limits, dosimeters and improved radiation shielding.In 1964 the Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment began with the construction of the reactor. It was operated from 1966 until 1969 (with six months down time to move from U-235 to U-233 fuel) and proved the viability of molten salt reactors while also producing fuel for other reactors as a byproduct of its own reaction.The High Flux Isotope Reactor built in 1965 with the highest neutron flux of any reactor at the time. It improved upon the work of the X-10 reactor producing more medical isotopes as well as allowing higher fidelity of materials research.Researchers in the Biology Division studied the effects of chemicals on mice including petrol fumes, pesticides and tobacco.In the late 1960s cuts in funding led to plans for another particle accelerator to be cancelled and the United States Atomic Energy Commission cut the breeder reactor program by two-thirds leading to a downsizing in staff from 5000 to 3800.In the 1970s the prospect of fusion power was strongly considered sparking research at ORNL. A tokamak called ORMAK, made operational in 1971, was the first tokamak to achieve a plasma temperature of 20 million Kelvin. After the success of the fusion experiments it was enlarged and renamed ORMAK II in 1973; however, the experiments ultimately failed to lead to fusion power plants.The US Atomic Energy Commission required improved safety standards in the early 1970s for nuclear reactors so ORNL staff wrote almost 100 requirements covering many factors including fuel transport and earthquake resistance. In 1972 the AEC held a series of public hearings where emergency cooling requirements were highlighted and the safety requirements became more stringent.ORNL was involved in analysing the damage to the core of the Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station after the accident in 1979.Also in 1972 Peter Mazur, a biologist at ORNL, froze with liquid nitrogen, thawed and implanted mouse embryos in a surrogate mother. The mouse pups were born healthy. The technique is popular in the livestock industry as it allows the embryos of valuable cattle to be transported easily and a prize cow can have multiple eggs extracted and thus through in vitro fertilisation have many more offspring than would naturally be possible.In 1974 Alvin Weinberg, director of the lab for 19 years, was replaced by Herman Postma, a fusion scientist.In 1977 construction began for 6 metre (20 foot) superconducting electromagnets intended to control fusion reactions. The project was an international effort, three electromagnets were produced in the US, one in Japan, one in Switzerland and the final by remaining European states and experimentation continued into the 1980s.The 1980s brought more changes to ORNL, a focus on efficiency became paramount.An accelerated climate simulation chamber was built that applied varying weather conditions to insulation to test its efficacy and durability faster than real time. Materials research into heat resistant ceramics for use in truck and high-tech car engines was performed, building upon the materials research that began in the nuclear reactors of the 1950s. In 1987 the High Temperature Materials Laboratory was established where ORNL and industry researchers cooperated on ceramic and alloy projects. The materials research budget at ORNL doubled after initial uncertainty regarding Reagan's economic policy of less government expenditure.In 1981 the Holifield Heavy Ion Research Facility, a 25 MV particle accelerator, was opened at ORNL. At the time, Holifield had the widest range of ion species and was twice as powerful as other accelerators attracting hundreds of guest researchers each year.The Department of Energy was concerned with the pollution surrounding ORNL and it began clean-up efforts. Burial trenches and leaking pipes had contaminated the groundwater beneath the lab and radiation tanks were sitting idle, full of waste. Estimates of the total cost of clean-up were into the hundreds of millions of US dollars.The five older reactors were subjected to safety reviews in 1987, ordered to be deactivated until the reviews were complete. By 1989 when the High Flux Isotope Reactor was restarted the US supply of certain medical isotopes was depleted.In 1989 the former executive officer of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Alvin Trivelpiece, became director of ORNL, he remained in the role until 2000.In 1992, a whistleblower, Charles Varnadore, filed complaints against ORNL, alleging safety violations and retaliation by his superiors. While an administrative law judge ruled in Varnadore's favor, the Secretary of Labor, Robert Reich, overturned that ruling. However, Varnadore's case saw prime contractor Martin Marietta cited for safety violations, and ultimately led to additional whistleblower protection within DOE., 1974, 3, New Delhi, India: Cambridge University Press, 2009 Changes in the organization of health services in developing countries have led to the district level assuming more responsibility for the planning, delivery and quality of community health care. This fully up-dated new edition has been produced to help those working in the district laboratory, and those responsible for the organization and management of community laboratory services and the training of district laboratory personnel. Replacing the previous publication Medical Laboratory Manual for Tropical Countries, this book provides an up-to-date practical bench manual, taking a modern approach to the provision of a quality medical laboratory service. It includes practical accounts of: organization and staffing of district laboratory services; total quality management; health and safety; equipping district laboratories; parasitological tests, illustrated in colour; clinical chemistry tests; how to plan a training curriculum for district laboratory personnel. Volume 2, published in late 1999, covers microbiological tests, haematological tests and blood transfusion tests. . Second Edition. Paperback. New., Cambridge University Press, 2009, 6<
